This page introduces a research project sponsored by the Japan Intercultural Institute, with support from the Japanese Ministry of Education. The project explores the psychological challenges and rewards of language learning using a psychometric instrument–The Linguaculture Motivation Profiler (LMP). On this page you can find background on the project, information about the LMP, how educators can use the LMP, main findings so far, and information about participating in this project.

 1.Linguaculture Resistance and Motivation in Foreign Language Learning: An Overview

A research team of JII members based in Japan—Robinson Fritz (Kyushu University), Joseph Shaules (Keio University), Gabriela Schmidt (Nihon University), and Sumiko Miyafusa (Toyo Gakuen University)—has been investigating foreign language learning motivation through a series of studies funded by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), under the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT).

  1. Linguaculture Resistance and its Effects on Learner Motivation
    (MEXT #17K02982, FY2017–FY2019)
    https://kaken.nii.ac.jp/ja/grant/KAKENHI-PROJECT-17K02982/
  2. Profiling Mixed Motivation: An Inquiry into Learner Resistance and Engagement in Foreign Language Learning
    (MEXT #22K00714, FY2022–FY2024)
    https://kaken.nii.ac.jp/ja/grant/KAKENHI-PROJECT-22K00714/
  3. Exploring Learner Resistance, Engagement, and Mixed States: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Motivation in Foreign Language Learning
    (MEXT #25K04315, FY2025–FY2028)

https://kaken.nii.ac.jp/en/grant/KAKENHI-PROJECT-25K04315/

This research approaches language learning through the lens of intercultural adaptation. From this perspective, learning a foreign language involves many of the same psychological challenges as adapting to a new culture: learners must integrate unfamiliar words, behaviors, and perspectives into their existing ways of thinking and feeling.

Central to this research is the idea of Linguaculture—the view that language and culture are deeply interconnected and cannot be separated. Linguaculture emphasises that learning a language also means engaging with new ways of thinking, feeling, interacting and interpreting the world. In short, learning a foreign language is not just about acquiring vocabulary or mastering grammar. It’s also a process of psychological adjustment and inner transformation.

This perspective shapes how this research views foreign language learning motivation. The psychological demands of adjusting to unfamiliar language patterns (e.g., words, grammar, pronunciation) and cultural norms (e.g., how to communicate appropriately in a given situation) can lead to complex emotional responses. Learners often feel both engaged (approach motivation) and resistance (avoidance motivation) at the same time. This has led to the finding of mixed-states motivation—learners feeling excited, curious, or satisfied about some aspects of learning while feeling anxious, frustrated, or doubtful about others. These emotional experiences—whether excitement, anxiety, self-doubt, or pride—are not side effects. They are at the heart of the learning journey.

The goal of this research is to offer a more nuanced, psychologically realistic view of learner motivation—one that recognises how both positive and negative emotions shape the learning experience. By better understanding this dynamic, educators can create supportive classroom environments that help reduce resistance and foster meaningful engagement.

 2.The Goal of This Research

Foreign language motivation has often been understood in a simplified way, aas if students are either motivated or unmotivated, with little recognition of the in-between states they may experience. This research aims to provide a more complex understanding by raising awareness of the psychological challenges that foreign language learners have. In particular, this research aims to help educators better understand:

  • How positive and negative feelings influence foreign language learning
  • How to guide learners who have positive and negative feelings towards foreign language learning
  • How to design environments that encourage learners to engage deeply in the learning process

3.The Linguaculture Motivation Profiler (LMP): A Tool to measure resistance, engagement and mixed-states

One of the main outcomes of this research work is the development of the Linguaculture Motivation Profiler (LMP)—a 45-item questionnaire that helps educators explore foreign language learners’ motivational states.

  • Available in English and Japanese
  • Can be completed online (computer or smartphone) and takes about 10 minutes
  • Usable once or multiple times across a course or semester
  • The LMP is a validated psychometric tool that assesses three dimensions of learner motivation:
    • Engagement (approach motivation)
    • Resistance (avoidance motivation)
    • Mixed states (a combination of both)

The LMP is not designed to assign a “motivation score.” Instead, it provides a snapshot of a learner’s current motivational dynamics, recognising that motivation is fluid and so has the potential to track motivational changes over time. 

4.How Educators Can Use the LMP

The Linguaculture Motivation Profiler (LMP) can support educators in designing more responsive and psychologically informed learning environments. It offers insights into learners’ emotional and motivational states, helping teachers to better understand how students relate to the language learning process. Educators can use the LMP in the following ways:

  • Diagnose learner needs

Use LMP results to identify motivational strengths and challenges. This information can inform syllabus design, classroom strategies, and the selection of activities that either reduce resistance or enhance engagement.

  • Create learner profiles

Track students’ motivation over time to develop detailed learner profiles. These profiles can reveal patterns of engagement, resistance, and mixed-states, supporting a more individualized approach to teaching and learner support.

  • Promote reflection and dialogue

Share LMP results with learners to spark reflection and conversation about their emotional experiences, learning habits, and personal goals. This process can build awareness and encourage greater learner autonomy.

  • Support action research

The LMP can be used as a classroom-based research tool to evaluate and improve teaching practices. Educators can track motivational changes across a semester and assess how specific interventions affect learner engagement and resistance.

5.Main Findings So Far

Research carried out with Japanese university students learning English has revealed several key insights into the emotional and motivational complexity of the language learning process:

  • Mixed-states motivation is common

Many learners experience both engagement (approach motivation) and resistance (avoidance motivation) at the same time. Feeling excited about certain aspects of learning while also feeling anxious, frustrated, or doubtful is not unusual—it is part of the normal learning experience.

  • Engagement and resistance are not opposites

These two dimensions are distinct and can co-exist. Increasing engagement does not automatically eliminate resistance. In fact, learners with high levels of mixed motivation may respond differently than those with more consistent emotional states.

  • Emotional experiences are central, not incidental

Emotions such as curiosity, confidence, anxiety, or self-doubt are core to how learners engage with language and culture. Recognizing and responding to these emotions can improve teaching effectiveness and learner well-being.

  • Motivation is dynamic and fluid

Motivation shifts over time. These shifts can be influenced by classroom interactions, learning tasks, and broader cultural or psychological factors. Tracking motivational change can help educators better support learners throughout the course of study.

6.Key Contributions

This research contributes to the field of language education by:

  • Introducing the concept of mixed-states motivation
    We propose a new framework that accounts for the co-existence of engagement and resistance, offering a more realistic and nuanced view of how learners experience language learning.
  • Bridging language learning and intercultural adaptation
    By drawing on intercultural adaptation theory, we highlight how language learning involves deep psychological and emotional adjustment—not just cognitive skill-building.

  • Developing an empirically validated assessment tool
    The Linguaculture Motivation Profiler (LMP) offers a practical way to explore and respond to learners’ emotional and motivational needs in both research and classroom contexts.

  • Supporting educator development
    These findings can help teachers recognise and navigate the emotional complexity of learners’ learning journeys, encouraging practices that are both emotionally responsive and pedagogically sound.

 7.Interested in Participating?

The team welcomes collaboration with educators and researchers who are interested in exploring the emotional and psychological dimensions of language learning. There are several ways you can get involved:

  • Use the LMP in your teaching context
  • Collaborate in cross-cultural data collection
  • Encourage learner reflection

Use the LMP in your context

The Linguaculture Motivation Profiler (LMP) is available in English and Japanese. You can use it in your classroom or research setting to explore learners’ engagement, resistance, and mixed motivational states.

Contribute to cross-cultural research

We are currently expanding our research to include international contexts. Your participation can help us compare motivational patterns across cultures and educational environments.

Encourage learner reflection

The LMP is a useful tool to promote dialogue with students about their learning experience. It helps learners better understand their own motivations and emotional responses.

Collaborate on educational or research projects

We are open to co-research, joint publications, and practitioner-led action research projects that explore motivation and emotional engagement in language learning.

By participating, you will contribute to a growing body of research that aims to support more psychologically informed and emotionally responsive language education.

If you’re interested in using the LMP or learning more about the project, please feel free to contact us. We look forward to connecting with educators and researchers from around the world.

Contact

Robinson Fritz (Principal Investigator):fritz(at)flc.kyushu-u.ac.jp

Joseph Shaules: jshaules(at)japanintercultural.org

Gabriela Schmidt schmidt.maria.gabriera (at) nihon-u.ac.jp

Sumiko Miyafusa: sumiko.miyafusa (at) tyg.jp

References 

  1. Miyafusa, S., Fritz, R., Shaules, J., Schmidt., G., モチベーションの混合状態：外国語学習における 学習者の抵抗と前向きな意欲に関する考察, 東洋学園大学紀要, 31, p.50-64, 2023
  2. ​​Shaules, J. (2007). Deep culture. The hidden challenges of global living. Multilingual Matters.
  3. Shaules, J. (2017). Linguaculture resistance: An intercultural adjustment perspective on negative learner attitudes in Japan. Juntendo Journal of Global Studies, 2, p.66–78.
  4. Shaules, J. (2019). Language, Culture, and The Embodied Mind. Springer International Publishing
  5. Shaules, J., Fritz, R., & Miyafusa, S. (2020). Measuring resistance and engagement: The Linguaculture Motivation Profiler. In P. Clements, A. Krause, & R. Gentry (Eds.), Teacher efficacy, learner agency, pp.92–99. Tokyo: JALT. https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTPCP2019-12
  6. Shaules, J., & McConachy, T. (2023). Introduction: Enacting deep learning in foreign language pedagogy. In J. Shaules & T. McConachy (Eds.), Transformation, embodiment, and wellbeing in foreign language pedagogy: Enacting deep learning, pp.1–14. Bloomsbury Academic.